Table 3 Description of measurement tools used to assess PSMU

BFAS (6 items)

- Developed and validated in English by Andreassen et al. [44] (2012, Norway)

- Validated in Arabic by Louragli et al. [40] (2019, Morocco)

From 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often)

- For English version: (α = 0.83)

(RMSEA = 0.046, CFI = 0.99) (χ2/df = 1.84, p > 0.05)

- For Arabic version: (α = 0, 788)

BSMAS (6 items) adapted from the BFAS

- Developed and validated in English by Andreassen et al. [45] (2016, Norway)

- Validated in Persian by Lin et al. [7] (2017, Iran)

From 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often)

- For English version: (α = 0.88)

- For Persian version: (α = 0.86)

(AVE = 0.51; CR = 0.86); (CFI = 0.993; TLI = 0.989; RMSEA = 0.057; SRMR = 0.039)

ASMAS (14 items) adapted from the Young’s IAT

- Developed and validated in Arabic by Jamal Al-Menayes [8] (2015, Kuwait)

From 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (all actually agree)

- Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.82)

SMQ, (10 items)

- Developed and validated in Persian by Farahnaz Pirouz [33] (2016, Iran)

From 0 (Not at all) to 6 (To a large extent)

- Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.86)

SMUD (27 items)

- Developed and validated in Arabic by Barbar et al. [35] (2020, Lebanon)

–

- Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.847)

FIS (6 items)

- Developed and validated in English by Ellison et al. [46] (2007, United States)

- Validated in Arabic by Nazzal et al. [39] (2018, Palestine)

From 1 (strongly

disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)

- For English version: (α = 0.83)

- For Arabic version: (α = 0, 78)