Table 2 Summary of structural, functional and biochemical abnormalities in ASPD

Structural

• MRI showed lower prefrontal grey matter volume compared to control

[46]

• MRI showed increased estimated white matter volume and reduced thickness in the corpus callosum in psychopathic antisocial individuals

[47]

• MRI showed decreased whole brain and temporal lobe volume and elevated putamen volume

[48]

• Brain imaging showed reduction of prefrontal structure involving orbitofrontal- and dorsolateral frontal cortices, and the anterior cingulate cortex

[49]

• MRI showed smaller mean surface area and lower mean cortical thickness in ASPD patients with life-course-persistent ASB than those with low ASB

• Areas involved include temporal and frontal regions of the brain

[52]

• ASB-PRS was associated with alterations in amygdala shape rather than volume in ADHD patients with DBD

• ASB-PRS was not dependent on ADHD-PRS and ADHD symptom severity

[53]

Functional

• Reduction of autonomic activity in the presence of a stressor

[46]

• Brain imaging showed reduction in prefrontal function involving orbitofrontal- and dorsolateral frontal cortices, and cingulate cortex

[49]

• White matter impairments detected using diffusion tensor imaging, with reduction in FA and AD/ RD deficits

[50]

• R-fMRI showed reduction in brain integration and topological organization segregation of functional brain networks

• Involving mainly the fronto-parietal control network

[51]

• R-fMRI showed association between ASB and reduced dynamic functional connectivity in sensorimotor and high-order cognitive functional networks

[54]

• Altered neural oscillations in selected resting networks in antisocial offender males

• Association between abnormal neural oscillations and cocaine use

[55]

• Differences in cortico-striatal connectivity in ASPD patients was associated with MAO-A genotype

• Aggressive behavior ASPD patients was associated with differences in functional connectivity linked to MAO-A genotype

[56]

Biochemical

• R-fMRI and PET scans showed a link between ventral striatal MAO-A level with the functional connectivity of striatal regions associated with impulsive behavior in ASPD

[57]

• Functional SNPs from the serotonin 1b receptor gene and 2a receptor gene

• Antisocial boys with high callous-unemotional traits had significantly lower levels of serum serotonin than those with low callous-unemotional traits

[58]

• Low DAT activity genotypes were associated with poor decision-making in patients with ASPD, suggesting an association between brain dopamine levels and decision-making in ASPD

[60]

• Early-life stress resulted in upregulation of gene for serotonin 5-HT2A receptor in prefrontal cortex of mice

• Environment–gene interactions were associated with social deficits, antisocial and aggressive behaviors

[61]

• Patients with ASPD had higher levels of glutamate and glutamine in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex than bipolar disorder patients and healthy subjects

[62]

• ASPD patients had reduced FAAH density in the amygdala

• FAAH expression in the striatum and cerebellum was linked to a reduction in impulsivity

• There was an inverse relationship between cerebellar FAAH levels and assaultive aggression

[64]

• Positive correlation was detected between basal plasma testosterone levels and antisocial personality traits among healthy male and female subjects

[65]

• Males with antisocial behaviors and high hostility had elevated levels of plasma testosterone

[66]

• Elevated levels of TNF-α and lower levels of TGF-β1 and BDNF among patients with ASPD, SUDs and ASPD + SUDs

• Higher levels of IL-10 in patients with SUD, SUD + ASPD, OUD and OUD + ASPD patients

[67]

• Patients with ASPD had significantly elevated levels of anxiety, aggression, depression, and impulsivity than healthy subjects

• ASPD patients had decreased leptin and increased ghrelin levels compared to healthy subjects

[68]

• Stronger cortisol-AA stress coordination observed in offenders than non-offenders

• Positive correlation between cortisol-AA stress coordination and 1) ASB and 2) negative urgency

[69]