Table 1 Summary of etiological factors in ASPD

Genetic

• Longitudinal twin study

• 67% of the total variance in ASB was due to a common genetic influence

[26]

• Multigeneration family study

• Subjects with parental and progeny behavior problems (9.4%) showed psychopathology, substance use and criminal behaviors

• Subjects with a multi-generational history of behavior problems (20.3%) had psychopathology and problems with alcoholism and crimes

[27]

• 5HTTLPR and 5HTTVNTR polymorphisms of SLC6A4 gene showed increased risk for ASPD

[30]

• Decreased SLC6A4 expression in Turkish criminals with ASPD

[31]

• Haplotypes of 11 serotonergic genes were linked to an increased or decreased risk of ASB

[32]

• Multiple genes like COMT, 5-HTR2A and TPH1 were linked to ASPD symptoms

[33]

• DRD2 A1/A1 and the ALDH2*1/*1 genotypes were associated with increased risk of ASPD

[34]

• OXTR rs 1,042,778 TT genotype was associated with gender differences in amygdala functions and ASB in men

[35]

• A higher frequency of the SNP, rs10420324G in the TARP γ-8 (or CACNG8) gene was related to ASP

[36]

• The SNP, rs13134663 in the COL25A1 gene showed a significant association with ASPD

[37]

Environmental

• The shared environment is an important factor during childhood

• Genetic factors are important and stable at all ages in conduct and antisocial personality problems

[39]

• ACEs and victimization were more frequent among male prisoners with a personality disorder than those without

[41]

• Predictors of adult convictions and antisocial personality include: 1) low intelligence or attainment, 2) a large family size, 3) a convicted parent, 4) a disrupted family, and 5) a young mother

[42]

• ACE was a predictor of ASPD with moderation by the 5-HTTPLR genotype in African American women

[43]

• Passive avoidance during adolescence mediated the relation between CECA and later ASB in adolescence

[44]

• Active empathy deficits in toddlerhood were linked to ASB later in adulthood

[45]