Table 1 Summary of published studies on predictors of parenting stress in parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (2009–2020)
Authors/year/country | Study aim | Study design | Description of study | Predictors addressed | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Merdan [18] Turkey | Identified the correlation between parenting stress and children’s behavior problem | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred forty-two mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Problem behaviors | Problem behaviors of children predicted with a high level of parenting stress (p = 0.001) |
Pozo and Sarriá [19] Spain | Investigated the predictive association between behavioral problems and parenting stress | Longitudinal study | Sample: twenty-one mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Behavior symptoms | A significant relationship between the high level of parenting stress and behavior problem (p =0.028) |
Zheng et al. [20] Australia | Examined stressors in mothers of preschool- and school-aged children with ASD | Cross-sectional | Sample: fifty-six mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Problem behaviors, cognitive ability, communication, daily living skills; socialization and sensory processing | Repetitive and problematic behaviors (p = 0.05), communication and daily living skills (p = 0.05), socialization and sensory sensitivities (p = 0.001) were correlated with a high level of parenting stress |
Su et al. [21] China | Examined the relationship between parenting stress and children’s core ASD symptoms | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred twenty-two mothers of children with ASD Instrument: the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) | Problem behaviors | No significant correlation between parenting stress and child ASD characteristic (p = 0.161) |
Zaidman-Zait et al. [11] Canada | Identified the relations between child behavior problems and parenting stress | Longitudinal study | Sample: two hundred eighty-three mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Behavior problems | Longitudinal relationship between a high level of parenting stress and behavior problems (p<0.001) |
Craig et al. [22] Italy | Investigated the association of parenting stress with socio-demographic variable, behavioral and emotional problems | Cross-sectional | Sample: eighty-one parents of children with ASD (father n =39, mother n =42) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Socio-demographic variable (e.g., parent age), behaviors, and emotional problems | Older parents, age of mothers (p<0.001) and age of fathers (p=0.021), emotion, and behavior problems (p =0.001) are predictors of the high level of parenting stress |
Harrop et al. [23] USA | Examined the relationship between child behavior problems and parenting stress | Longitudinal study | Sample: one hundred ninety-three caregivers of children with ASD (biological n= 188, adoptive n = 3, maternal grandparent n = 2) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Behavior problems | Longitudinal relationship between behavior problems and a high level of parenting stress (p <0.001) |
Batool and Khurshid [24] Pakistan | Explored the relationship between parent stress and factors (e.g., social-communication, parent’s gender) | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred parents of children with ASD (father n = 50, mother n =50) Instrument: Parenting Stress Scale (PSS) | Impairments of social-communication and gender of the parent | Only socio-communication impairment predictor of a high level of parenting stress (p <0.001) |
Brei et al. [25] USA | Identified the association between parenting stress and autism-associated symptomatology (i.e., problem behaviors, and social-communication) | Cross-sectional | Sample: forty parents of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Problem behaviors and social-communication skills | Behavioral problems were strongly linked to a high level of parenting stress (p < 0.001) |
Giovagnoli et al. [26] Italy | Investigated the role of several factors in parental stress, including the impairments of social-communication, behaviors, and emotional problems. | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred ninety parents of children with ASD (95 fathers, 95mothers) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Socio-communication impairments, behaviors, and emotional problems | The high level of parenting stress strongly associated with behavior and emotional problems (p <0.001) |
Green and Carter [27] USA | Investigated the relationship between daily living skills and parenting stress | Longitudinal study | Sample: one hundred sixty-one mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Daily living skills | A significant relationship between the high level of parenting stress and daily living skills (p = 0.05) |
Huang et al. [28] Taiwan | Examined the emotional and behavioral problems with parenting stress in parents of children ASD | Cross-sectional | Sample: fifty-two parents of children with ASD (father n = 8, mother n = 44) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Emotional and behavioral problems | Behavior problems significantly correlated with the high level of parenting stress (p < 0.001) |
McStay et al. [29] Dutch | Examined the association of child-related factors (i.e., age, impairments of social-communication, child QoL, and problem behavior) and parenting stress of children with ASD | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred fifty parents of children with ASD (42 fathers, 108 mothers) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Child age, child quality of life (Qol), and behavior problems | Behavior problems associated with a high level of parenting stress among parents of children with ASD (p= 0.05) |
Rivard et al. [30] Canada | Identified the association between ASD core symptoms and parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: two hundred thirty-six parents of children with ASD (118 fathers and 118 mothers) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Deficits of social-communication interaction and behavior problems | The high level of parenting stress associated with the core ASD (p < 0.001) |
Allen et al. [31] Australia | Examined the association between parenting stress and ASD symptoms | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred twenty-four parents of children with ASD (23 fathers, 101 mothers) Instrument: Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) | ASD symptoms (social-communication interaction, behavior problems) | All ASD symptoms are predictors with a high level of parenting stress (p =0.05) |
Estes et al. [32] USA | Examined child problem behavior, socio- communication skills, and daily living skills as predictors with parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: forty-six mothers of children with ASD Instrument: the Questionnaire on Resources and Stress (QRS) | Child behavior problems and deficits of social-communication interaction and daily living skills | Only child behavior problems (p =0. 006) as a significant predictor with a high level of parenting stress |
Firth and Dryer [33] Australia | Identified what is characteristic of ASD as a predictor of parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred nine parents of children with ASD Instrument: the Parental Stress Scale (PSS) | Problem behaviors and socio-communication impairments | Social impairments (p < 0. 001) and behavior problems were (p < 0. 001) observed as a predictor of a high level of parenting stress |
Totsika et al. [34] UK | Investigated the relationship between parenting stress and behavior problems | Longitudinal study | Sample: one hundred thirty-two mothers of children with ASD Instrument: General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) | Behavior problems | No significant relationship (p = 0.321) |
Walsh et al. [35] USA | Investigated various factors as predictors of parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred forty-eight parents of children with ASD (father n = 14, mother n =132) Instrument: Parenting Daily Hassles (PDH) | Problem behaviors | Behavior problems were significantly related to a high level of parenting stress (p < 0.001) |
Wang et al. [36] China | Identified factors linked to parenting stress among mothers of children with ASD | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred fifty mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Behavior problems | Child’s behavior problems were correlated with a high level of parenting stress (p < 0.001) |
Weiss et al. [37] Canada | Explored the relations between child problem behavior and parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: two hundred twenty-eight parents of children with ASD (16 fathers and 212 mothers) Instrument: Psychological Distress Scale | Child problems behavior | The significant correlation between problem behaviors and a high level of parenting stress (p <0.001) |
Peters-Scheffer et al. [38] Dutch | Examined factors predicting parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred four mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Deficits of social-communication and behavior problems | No significant correlation of social-communication impairments (p =0.42), behavior problems (p =0.21), and parenting stress |
Hall and Graff [39] USA | Examined factors associated with parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: seventy-five parents of children with ASD (father n =25, mother n = 50) Instrument: Parent Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) | Deficits of social-communication interaction and daily living skills | A high level of parenting stress associated with impairments of social-communication interaction (p = 0.05) and daily living skills (p = 0.05) |
Rezendes and Scarpa [40] USA | Assessed parenting stress as related to behavior problems in children with ASD | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred forty mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Depression Anxiety Stress Scale | Child behavior problems | The high level of parenting stress among mothers of children with ASD associated with behavior problems (p <0.001) |
Totsika et al. [41] UK | Investigated the association of behavioral problems of children with ASD and parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: forty-seven mothers of children with ASD Instrument: maternal well-being | Child behavior problems | A significant relationship between problem behaviors and the high level of parenting stress (p <0.001) |
Osborne and Reed [42] UK | Examined the relationship between characteristics of a child with ASD and parenting stress | Cross-sectional | Sample: one hundred thirty-seven parents of children with ASD Instrument: Questionnaire on Resources and Stress (QRS-F) | Behavior problems, deficits of social-communication interaction and intellectual functioning | A high level of parenting stress was strongly correlated with child’s behavior problems (p <0.001) |
Phetrasuwan and Shandor Miles [43] USA | Described the factors of parenting stress in mothers of children with ASD | Descriptive-correlational | Sample: one hundred eight mothers of children with ASD Instrument: Parental Stressor Scale: Developmental Disabilities (PSS:DD) | Behavior symptoms | Behavioral problems were predictors with a high level of parenting stress (p <0.001) |